INTRODUCTION
The development of Mariology starts from the reflections of the first Fathers of the Church on the role that the Mother of Jesus plays in the history of salvation. The Fathers of this period rarely wrote exclusively about Mary, but always in connection with other themes they dealt with: the Sacred Scriptures, the mystery of the Incarnation, the person of Christ etc.
The first of these considerations are theories that highlight the presence and mission of Mary as found in the context of thought formulated around the Incarnation and in the progressive formulation of Christological doctrines. These themes, however varied, over the centuries have conferred on the Mother of Jesus the role of guarantor of faith in Christological and Trinitarian speculations. The development of these mariological reflections “springs” from the currents of thought, which would later be defined heterodox, that seeks to deny the nature of Christ (truly human and truly divine), offering the early Fathers of the Church the opportunity to vigorously defend the truth of Jesus, born of a virgin by the power of the Holy Spirit.
The starting point of the reflection "Eve-Mary" comes from the typological reading of Paul who compares Christ to Adam (cf. Rom 5:15). There was, therefore, a theological expansion of the figure of Adam to whom Eve was associated. The new Adam was joined by the new Eve.
JUSTIN
Justin was born around 100-110 in Palestine and is considered as the greatest apologist of the second century, he was dubbed as a philosopher and, accordingly, was also a martyr. He was an author of great importance also in the Marian field. Already in his youth, Justin was a passionate seeker of the truth. In fact, he studied philosophy and was a student of several philosophical schools of his time: he was a Stoic, Peripatetic, Pythagorean and Platonist. Only in Christianity his search found fulfillment, and Justin adhered to the new faith. He was martyred under Marcus Aurelius in the year 165.
To develop his own vision, Justin took his cue from the typological reading "Adam-Jesus" as elaborated in the First Letter to the Corinthians: Why, if death came through a man, through a man will also come the resurrection of the dead. For as in Adam all die, so in Christ all will receive life (1 Cor 15:21-22). Justin's doctrine revolves around the economic divinity of the mystery of the Incarnation which is the fulfillment of the promises of the First Testament. So, it was not difficult for the Fathers to see the deep connection that exists between the conception of Christ as the new Adam and that of Mary as the new Eve. This parallelism between Mary and Eve will end up becoming one of the Church Fathers' favorite "subjects" after Justin.
The Two Virgins: Eve and Mary
Both Eve's pre-sin virginity and Mary's virginal conception constitute a key point in Justin's reflection. Placing the parallelism in the Christological context, he writes:
Eve, who was a virgin free from corruption, receiving the word from the serpent, beget disobedience and death; the virgin Mary, on the other hand, conceived faith and joy when the angel Gabriel brought them the happy announcement that the Spirit of the Lord would descend upon her and the power of the Most High upon her she would have cast her shadow, so that the saint born of her would have been the Son of God; and replied: Let it happen to me according to your word.
In this passage, where a typological reading between Eve and Mary appears for the first time, Mary's virginity and obedience are simultaneously compared and contrasted with those of Eve. Both women were virgins when the decisive words were spoken to them but the answer that Eve gave is that of disobedience to a divine command which led to death. The obedience of the young virgin of Nazareth, on the other hand, brings life by accepting God's saving plan. Justin juxtaposed the scene of the fall in the earthly paradise to that of the Annunciation. The parallelism is soteriological as much as it demonstrates that his concern is not so much about the person of Mary, but rather about her role in relation to Christ recalling the role of Eve in relation to Adam.
Justin, in calling Mary "the Virgin", is not simply referring to her physiological state. Mary, in responding positively to God's call and giving birth to the Savior, recapitulates the Genesis story. As Justin wrote: Through this virgin was born this one to whom (…) relate all the Scriptures, by which God destroys the serpent and the angels and men who have become like him, and instead he keeps death away from those who, repenting, leave their works wicked and believe in him.
Mary, the new Eve in the plan of salvation
Genesis 3:20 names Eve as the mother of the living, but because of her sin, she brought death. Since Eve has brought ruin and death to her children, according to Justin it is necessary that a “new Eve” must appear: a prophetic type of new Eve who would become the mother of the living in the fullest sense of the word. The new Eve was to be the Virgin Mary. Justin connects Gen 3,1-20 (The Fall) with Lk 1,26-38 (the Annunciation). Luke's passage restores what was destroyed with the fall: man destroys, God rebuilds; man sins, God saves; man introduces death, God brings back life.
Already foreshadowed in the First Testament, especially in Isaiah's prophecy of a virgin who gives birth (Is 7:10-14), Justin writes: It is always of Christ that it was said: Behold the virgin will conceive and bear a son. For if he of whom Isaiah spoke had not been born of a virgin, of whom the Holy Spirit never exclaims: Behold, the Lord himself will give you a sign?. Justin recognizes in Mary's virginal participation in the Incarnation both the historical fact (true birth) and the event of faith (virgin birth, beyond the laws of nature): the virgin mother is a sign, the strongest, that God has chosen to make his plan credible. The Fiat that the Virgin of Nazareth gave to the angel's message is the consequence of a free and conscious choice. But, it is necessary to remember that Eve's action had remained subordinate to Adam's decisive one (...) in the same way Mary's action, in order of human salvation, remains absolutely subordinate to what is necessary and essential of Christ, the only redeemer. For Justin, the “Eve-Mary” parallel does not play a decisive role as it is rather it should always be associated with the "Christ-Adam" role. This reflection, this ‘qualitative leap’, in fact, is done by Irenaeus of Lyon.
IRENAEUS OF LYON
Irenaeus of Lyon is considered the first of the great second-century theologians of Christianity. He is originally from Asia Minor (modern day Turkey), born in Smyrna between 140 and 160 where he met Polycarp and became his disciple. He later moved to Gaul (modern day France), was ordained in the church of Lyon, and became its bishop. He died around 202. As it was written by Gregory of Tours, perhaps he died a martyr. As has happened from time to time in the history of the Church, the doctrine of Irenaeus was developed in opposition to heretics, in particular to the Gnostics, and so his major work is called Adversus haereses (Against Heresies). Here it is possible to trace numerous texts on his theological development of the “Eve-Mary” typology.
Mary in the theology of salvation
Irenaeus' parallelism between Mary and Eve has its "origin" in the context of the recapitulation of all things in Christ (cf. Rom 5:12.15.18). Irenaeus, largely surpassing the reflection of Justin, places even more emphasis on the lexical difference with regard to the role of Mary than that of the Son. The work of Mary, which is antithetical to that of Eve, is defined as a “recirculation”, while that of Christ is the true “recapitulation”. The parallelism that underlies the proposition of Irenaeus on the parallelism between Eve and Mary begins with the parallelism between Adam and Christ: Irenaeus puts them side by side and outlines what separates these two groups.
For Irenaeus, the role of Mary is connected to the role of Christ, just as Eve is associated with Adam. With her humility, Mary thwarted the plan of the serpent after Eve's consent. Mary, therefore, removes the obstacle created by the first woman: the Virgin Mary obeys when she says: "I am the handmaid of the Lord" [...]. Eve disobeyed, and she was disobedient while still a virgin. Like Eve, who despite having Adam as her husband was still a virgin [...]disobeying became the cause of her death and for all mankind. Mary, who despite having a husband and still a virgin, by obeying she became the cause of salvation for herself and for all mankind. The knot of Eve's disobedience was resolved thanks to the obedience of Mary. What Eve had bound by her unbelief, Mary has loosened by her faith.
For Irenaeus, the role of Mary is connected to the role of Christ, just as Eve is associated with Adam
Seen in the light of Christ's action, Adam's sin is overcome by Christ's offering. It's in this context that Irenaeus presents Mary similar to Eve. Both have husbands and are virgins. Another factor that has played a decisive role in this typological construction concerns the aspect of listening: in her unbelief, Eve listened to the temptation of the serpent, disobeying God and thus bringing death. Eve fell into the seduction of Evil. Mary, on the other hand, by faith, heard and believed the word of the angel. Being obedient, the virgin of Nazareth gave birth to Life (cf. Jn 14:6). Mary has welcomed the Good News, the truth that opposes the lies of the serpent which Eve has chosen to listen to. By her disobedience, Eve fled from the presence of God; with her Fiat, Mary carried God in her bosom.
In the fifth book of his work Against Heresies, Irenaeus writes: The seduction of which Eve had miserably been the victim... was dispelled by the truth that was magnificently announced by the angel to Mary. The Virgin Mary became the virgin Eve's advocate; as mankind was bound to death by means of a virgin, so was he delivered by a virgin, for the disobedience of a virgin was counterbalanced by the obedience of a virgin.
Starting from this antithesis, in the thought of Irenaeus the Virgin Mary became the advocate of virgin Eve, where the former counterbalances the disobedience of the latter. Mary enters the plan of salvation as the anti-type of Eve. The history of humanity, both past and present, converges: the First Testament continues in the New Testament. Where the fall is caused by a woman's disobedience (Eve as causa mortis), salvation must also begin with a woman (Mary as causa salutis).
The cunning of the tempter in the Garden of Eden is opposed to the simplicity and humility of the dove. While sin limited our first parents, Christ and Mary freed humanity thanks to their obedience. The recapitulation is completed thanks to the "recirculation". Adam, the fallen man, is raised by another man, the perfect man, Christ. Adam's sin is overcome by Christ's correction. Salvation must "copy" and correspond anti-thetically, step by step, to the process of the fall. The Virgin Mary, giving birth to the new Adam, became the new Eve, the true mother of the living.
Tertullian
Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullianus was born in Carthage in North Africa around 160 A.D. He is considered as the first and great Christian writer of the Latin language and the first author native of the West to speak of Mary, even if only in reference to Jesus without any interest specific with respect to his person. He was, perhaps, a lawyer by profession in the courts because it shows a specific knowledge of the procedure and terms of Roman law. His family was from pagan religion and he himself had been a pagan until his midlife when he shared the prejudices pagans against Christianity. His conversion to Christianity could be dated shortly after 190. His writings influenced the formulation and development of some of the most important doctrines of the Western Christianity: Trinitarian theology and Christology. Tertullian is also known to have acceded to Montanism, a rigorist movement originating in Phrygia. Tertullian died around 220 or 230.
Mary and the humanity of Christ
Tertullian is the first Christian writer to attribute the term person to the Trinity, i.e. to Father, to the Son and to the Holy Spirit. He sees in the person of Christ a distinct nature: human and divine. Tertullian says: We see a dual state, not confused but conjoined in one person, Jesus God and man. For many historians of theology, this is one of the most important premises for the subsequent Christology. It is from this context that his Marian reflections begin.
Tertullian's reading of the “Eve-Mary” typology is mainly found in his work De carne Christi. His point of view is in line with Justin's reflection. However, Tertullian ascribes to Mary, a minor role in the salvation history compared to Irenaeus's position, where she was considered as the causa salutis. Tertullian defends the humanity of Christ with determination thanks to Mary who guarantees it. Tertullian offers a summary of Mary's function in the mystery of the God incarnate: “You [addressing the pagans] maintain that Christ was born "through" the virgin, not ‘from’ virgin, and ‘in’ the womb not ‘out of’ the womb, for even the angel said to Joseph in a dream: Indeed what is born in her comes from the Holy Spirit. He did not say what was born of her.” The game of words that Tertullian presents means nothing else than this: through Mary, Jesus participates and enters fullness in the history of humanity. It is not a question of mere appearance (docetism), but a reality thanks to the humanity assumed by the Incarnate Word. “How is Christ the fruit of the womb? Not because he is the flower of the trunk grown from the root of Jesse, and the root of Jesse is the lineage of David, while the trunk that grew from the root is Mary, of the lineage of David, and the flower produced from the trunk is the son of Mary, who is called Jesus Christ, and is, therefore, also the fruit?.” Tertullian seems to allude to Lk 1:42 where Elizabeth greeted Mary with the words: ‘Blessed are you among the women and blessed is the fruit of your womb!’.
Christ the Son of God, born of the Virgin
Tertullian strongly affirms the veracity of the virgin birth. However, he denies the perpetual virginity of Mary and believes that Christ had a normal birth. He also believes that the brothers mentioned in the Gospels were really his brothers in the flesh (see: Mt 12:46-50; Mk 3:31- 35). Tertullian clearly emphasizes the virginal characteristics of Jesus' conception of Mary, which will become his most significant contribution to Marian reflections: “It was not convenient for the Son of God to be born of human seed, because there would have been the danger that, if had been entirely a son of man, he was no longer the Son of God (...). Therefore, he was the Son of God following the seed of God the Father, that is, thanks to the Spirit: and for him to also be a son of man, he only had to take upon himself that flesh that came from human flesh without the seed of man. And so, as when he was not still born of the virgin, could have God for a Father without having a woman for a mother, at the same way, when he was born of a virgin he could have a human mother without a human father. Finally, he is man and, together, God, while the flesh of man is, together, the Spirit of God: from man the flesh without seed, from God the Spirit with the seed.”
Mary's virginity becomes the place where the Father, the Son and the Spirit perform "the Trinitarian act" which allows the incarnation of the Logos: The Father conceives, making the Virgin a Mother; the Spirit inhabits the womb of the Virgin, giving a human body to the Son; the Word incarnates and becomes the son of Mary. Tertullian's thesis is that Jesus is true God insofar as he possesses the Spirit of God, and is fully man because he was born of a woman. Christ assumed his flesh from Mary, a human creature, who became his mother and conceived him virginally. With this reflection, Tertullian remains the only ancient Christian writer to highlight the identity between the flesh of Christ and the flesh of Mary.
“Eve- Mary- Church”
Tertullian's thought on the “Eve-Mary” typology is a precious testimony that highlights how the aforementioned theology was already known in the West. It also becomes clear that Mary was beginning to become the object of theological reflection. Tertullian writes: that the adversary, the word of death had penetrated Eve while she was still a virgin; similarly, the Word of God, builder of life, would have had to penetrate a Virgin, for what had gone to perdition to be brought back to salvation by means of the same sex. Eve believed the serpent; Mary believed the angel Gabriel: the sin that Eve committed by believing the serpent was canceled by Mary, likewise by believing an angel.
Tertullian’s reflection aligns with that of Justin and Irenaeus, according to whom Mary, due to the virginal condition of obedience, is the ‘new Eve’. These conclusions on Mary the ‘new Eve’ are expanded by Tertullian: in his vision Mary is the icon of the synagogue and a type of the Church. For Tertullian, since Eve and Mary were both mothers, both were instruments of God's will, both necessary for salvation and both virgin mothers, once again flies the theological function entrusted to Mary represents the dominant cipher of her identity. More than an individual and ethical exemplarity, Mary exercises a providential office.
Tertullian was the first to call the Church "mother". Later Fathers will deepen the typological reading of Mary not only as ‘New Eve’ but also as an image of the Church.
ECCLESIOLOGICAL REFLECTION OF THE “EVE-MARY” TYPOLOGY
The link between the aforementioned authors and Vatican II is, in some way, the assumption from the Council in the anthropological orientation of Mariology where they took up the antitype “Eve-Mary” and dedicated the eighth chapter of the Dogmatic Constitution of the Church Lumen Gentium to the Blessed Virgin Mary.
It consists of five sections reflecting on the function of the Virgin in the plan of salvation within the mystery of the Church. The Council Fathers focus on three main affirmations which they would announce as the many characteristics of Mary. Three biblical passages: Gen 3:15, (Mary as the new Eve); Is 7,14 (Mary as the virgin giving birth to the Emmanuel) and Mic 5,2-3 (the birth of Jesus to Mary in Bethlehem of Efrata). All these passages are read in a mariological perspective. In all three references, there is no mention of a husband, only of virgin women.
Drawing from the verse of the angel's greeting to Mary (cf. Lk 1:28), the Council Fathers outline the role of Mary in the history of salvation. This event recalls the ecclesiological doctrine of the Immaculate Conception. The conciliar fathers refer to Irenaeus and Jerome. The parallelism is clarified in the anti-thesis: Death for Eve, life for Mary (Jerome). Mary is the cause of salvation (Irenaeus). The Fiat of Mary, her Yes, is the indispensable condition for Jesus to be able to offer his whole life to humanity in which the Virgin also collaborates, who is the first to receive salvation.
The 63rd and 64th chapters of Lumen gentium, refer to Mary as a "type of the Church". Mary constitutes the nature of the Church and the Church recalls the mystery of Mary. The terms “virgin” and “mother” are attributed to the Church. As a mother, the Church gives life thanks to the sacraments. As a virgin, the Church is whole and pure, promised as bride to her husband, Jesus Christ. The Church is mother and bride as a reminder of holiness, as an indication of charity and as a sequel of fidelity to the will of the Father. Mary's maternal function towards men is in no way obscure or it diminishes this unique mediation of Christ, but shows its effectiveness. Through her intercession, the Church, and with her the whole of humanity, receives protection and sanctification. It must be stated that Mary, subordinate to Christ, has an active role in the plan of salvation. Mary, as the first fruit of redemption, participates, by grace alone, in the same mystery of the redemption of the Son who chooses her to be a Mediatrix, Advocate, and Helper.
The triple title is founded on the very mystery of the Son who reveals himself as "the way, the truth and the life" (Jn 14:6). Mary, as a Virgin, is "Mother of the Way" (Mediatrix), she is "Mother of truth" (Advocate) and she is "Mother of life" (Help of Christians). If Christ is revealed "way, truth and life", three titles are to be attributed to Mary: the first refers to the only Mediator (1Tm 2,5), one referring to the one Teacher (Mt 23,10), one referring to the one Redeemer (cf. Jn 19,34).
CONCLUSIVE REMARKS AND PERSPECTIVES
The Typological Reading of “Eve-Mary” in the West, between the 2nd and 3rd centuries, and the dogma of the Immaculate Conception Conception (1854): some theological reflections
The Church Fathers taught that Mary received a number of distinctive blessings to make her the "perfect Mother" to welcome Christ and, by becoming "God's Mother", she also does her utmost to become Mater hominum thanks to the act of the Son who entrusts his beloved disciple to her. These blessings included her role as the ‘new Eve’: her Immaculate Conception, her spiritual Motherhood and her Assumption into heaven, granted by the grace of God, foreshadow the same condition of the Church which is holy and immaculate (cf. Eph 5:27), mother of peoples (cf. 1 Tim 3:15), "teacher pilgrim who "will have his fulfillment [...] in the glory of heaven".
The key to understanding all these graces is Mary's role as the «new Eve», which the Fathers proclaimed so forcefully. Because she is the “new Eve”, she was born spotless, just like when Adam and Eve were created in a state of goodness. Because she is the “new Eve”, she is the Mother of the new humanity (Christians), just as the first Eve was the “mother of humanity”. Since Mary is the “new Eve”, thus she also shares the fate of the “new Adam”. While Adam and Eve died and went to dust, the new Adam and new Eve were physically lifted up to heaven. Of particular interest are the following quotations from the Fathers which speak of the immaculate nature of Mary. Catholicism professes faith in the definitive defeat of sin thanks to Christ. This yes will manifest at the end of time, when man will be made spotless (without sin). Mary, prototype of every Christian, has received this grace in advance. God granted her freedom from sin to make her a suitable Mother to her Son. In fact the virgin Mary, who at the announcement of the angel welcomed the Word of God in her heart and body and brought life to the world, she is recognized and honored as the true mother of God and Redeemer. Redeemed in an eminent way in view of the merits of her Son and united to him by a close and indissoluble bond, she is honored with the supreme office and dignity of Mother of the Son of God, and therefore she is the beloved daughter of the Father and temple of the Holy Spirit; for which gift of exceptional grace that far precedes all other creatures, celestial and terrestrial.
In this regard, the Council Fathers refer to the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin, celebrated by the universal Church on 8 December. The Immaculate Conception is a dogma that explains how the ultimate goal of the redemption brought about by Christ to humanity is "prefigured" in Mary. The definition of the dogma of the Immaculate Conception (1854) took the passage into consideration of the Annunciation and that its reading gave a fundamental impetus for the establishment of the dogma from the part of Pius IX that Mary was conceived immaculately, making her the Mother of Him who is the Way. Through the words of the Son at the wedding at Cana (cf. Jn 2:1-11), Mary is constituted as an intercessor of grace as the Mother of Him who is the Truth. Through the words of Jesus on the Cross, (cf. Jn 19:26-27) Mary participates in the plan of salvation as Mother of the One who is Life. As Mother of the One who is the Way, the Truth and the Life, Mary plays the role of Mother of humanity (Mater humanitatis), called to follow the one Mediator, the one Teacher and the one Redeemer.
References:
GAMBERO L., Maria nel pensiero dei padri della Chiesa, Paoline, Cinisello Balsamo 1991.
GHARIB G., TONIOLO E., GAMBERO L., DI NOLA G. (a cura di), Testi mariani del primo millennio. 1. Padri e altri autori greci, Città Nuova, Roma 1988.
GILA A., Maria nelle origini cristiane. Profilo storico della mariologia patristica, Paoline, Milano 2017.
GIUSTINO, Dialogo con Trifone, G.Visonà (ed.), Paoline, Milano 1988.
IRENEO DI LEONE, Contro le eresie, E. Bellini (ed.) Jaca Book, Como 1997.
LUMEN GENTIUM, in AAS 57 (1965). CONCILIO VATICANO II, Costituzioni, Decreti, Dichiarazioni (Constitutiones, Decreta, Declarationes), testo ufficiale e traduzione italiana, Città del Vaticano, Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 1998.
TERTULLIANO, De carne Christi, in Tertulliano, Opere dottrinali 3,2,a, C. Micaelli. C. Moreschini, C. Tommasi Moreschini, Città Nuova, Roma 2010.
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